The Inn of Italy

Identity

Site & dates

Street of the Knights (Odos Ippoton), Collachium › between the Inn of France and the Inn of England

The Inn (Auberge) of Italy — in Greek, το Κατάλυμα της Ιταλίας — stands on the Street of the Knights at the heart of the Collachium, near the old Hospital of the Knights and the church of Our Lady of the Castle. It bears, above its portal, the quartered coat of arms of Grand Master Fabrizio del Carretto and the date 1519, and stood, on the archival evidence assembled by Patrice Foutakis (2020), on or immediately beside land previously occupied by del Carretto's own mansion house during his term as admiral of the Order, 1509–1513. Comparatively small beside its neighbours, it is, in Foutakis's own assessment, one of the best-preserved and most completely legible auberges on the street.

1509–1513, Admiral

Fabrizio del Carretto serves as Admiral of the Order, commanding its galley fleet — an office reserved, by settled custom, to the Tongue of Italy alone among the Order's eight national Tongues.

1513–1521, Grand Master; 1519, building

Elected Grand Master in 1513 following the brief mastership of Guy de Blanchefort; in 1519 he builds, or radically rebuilds, this auberge, probably on or beside the site of his own former admiral's residence.

1521–1522, near-mutiny & Martinengo

Del Carretto dies in office (1521); the Italian Tongue comes near to rupture over Pope Adrian VI's seizure of its European commanderies; the knight Antonio Bosio recruits the military engineer Gabriele Tadino da Martinengo from Venetian Candia.

1522, the Bastion of Italy

In the final Ottoman siege, the bastion of Italy is held by the knight Andelot Gentili against repeated assault, part of the fortification programme completed under Martinengo's direction.

1522–1912, Ottoman-period conversion

Following the Order's withdrawal, the coat of arms is removed (gone by 1881), the ground floor enlarged into a grocery and tobacco store, and the interior subdivided into five separate properties.

1912 – Present

Italian administration from 1912; Amedeo Maiuri restores the façade in 1915–16 and recreates the coat of arms in marble; a commemorative inscription is added in 1931; the Dodecanese passes to Greece in 1947/48. The building serves today as a consulate — Foutakis's 2020 study reports it instead as housing the Service of the Direction of the Medieval Town of Rhodes, a description this project's own records do not confirm.

Identity Debate

A Grand Master's arms on a Tongue's auberge

Gerola and Gabriel’s doubts › Maiuri’s and Foutakis’s answers

Unlike several of the Order's other Rhodian auberges, this building's identification as the Inn of the Tongue of Italy did not go unquestioned. Two of the twentieth century's most careful students of the medieval town doubted it, principally on the grounds that a communal Inn ought properly to bear the arms of the Tongue itself, or of its senior officer, rather than a Grand Master's personal arms. This project reports that historiographical debate honestly, together with the archival evidence that has been read as resolving it in the building's favour.

Giuseppe Gerola, 1912

Examining the medieval town, objected that an Inn of the Tongue of Italy should properly bear the arms of Italy itself or of the Tongue's pilier, as other surviving auberges do, rather than the personal arms of a Grand Master.

Albert Gabriel, 1911–1923

Went further, judging the building “too small for the gatherings of the Italian knights of Rhodes” and proposing instead that it was either del Carretto's purely private house or a structure common to several Tongues.

Amedeo Maiuri's 1916 rebuttal

The admiral's office, Maiuri argued, was important enough to warrant its own separate residence distinct from the Tongue's communal Inn, so it was “normal” that a Grand Master's personal arms as former admiral should appear here; oral tradition recorded by Rottiers and later travellers consistently identified the house as the Inn of Italy regardless.

Patrice Foutakis, 2020

Assembling five independent eyewitness illustrations of the coat of arms spanning nearly a century, together with archival and metrological evidence including a comparable marble relief now in the Archaeological Museum of Istanbul, concludes that “the doubts expressed about this structure, whether it should be considered as the Inn of Italy, are not well founded.”

A separate, present-use question runs alongside the identity debate: Foutakis (2020) reports the building today housing the Service of the Direction of the Medieval Town of Rhodes. This project's own records confirm instead that the building serves as a consulate — visible today in the flags and the Italian Republic's plaque on its façade (see the Present Use photograph in the Gallery, below).

Fabric

A compact Gothic auberge

Portal, courtyard and well › one of the street’s smallest Inns

A small ogee-arched portal, framed by sculpted decoration and surmounted by Fabrizio del Carretto's coat of arms and the date 1519, leads into a vaulted passage and a small internal courtyard with a well. Built of local Rhodian sandstone in the same idiom as the Order's other Rhodian auberges, the building stands at a notably smaller scale than the Inns of France or Spain — a difference itself central to the modern identity debate discussed above.

The portal

A small ogee-arched doorway, framed by sculpted decoration, surmounted by del Carretto's quartered coat of arms and the date 1519.

Passage & courtyard

The portal leads into a vaulted-roofed passage and then to a small internal courtyard with a well, fitted with a wrought-iron pulley frame.

Ground floor

Rooms to right and left are vaulted-roofed, apart from the south-west room, which has a flat roof and a wide, arched doorway onto the Street of the Knights.

Upper floor

The large south chamber had a fireplace and was possibly the banqueting hall; next to it, the kitchen is also furnished with a large fireplace; the use of the other four first-floor rooms is not known.

The wider auberge

Foutakis's reconstruction places further structures of the Tongue of Italy on this stretch of street besides the Inn itself: the admirals' mansion houses, the residences of visiting priors from Italy, and a chapel of Saint Mary and Saint Demetrius near the admiral's garden, founded in 1499 by Admiral Lodovico Piossasco di Scalenghe.

Foutakis raises, without resolving it, the possibility that there existed at different times two distinct coats of arms of Fabrizio del Carretto on this building — one uncrowned and unadorned, the other crowned and flamboyantly framed — from two different buildings or two different building campaigns; no two of the five principal eyewitness illustrations of the arms, spanning 1826 to 1923, agree in every particular (see Testimony and Gallery, below).

History

1509–1948

From an admiral’s mansion › to Hellenic state property

The Inn of Italy's documented history opens with Fabrizio del Carretto's tenure as admiral, runs through his mastership and the building's construction in 1519, and continues through the Order's final siege, four centuries of Ottoman-period conversion, and a twentieth-century restoration that returned the façade to a legible medieval form.

1509–1513, Admiral del Carretto

A nobleman of Liguria, Fabrizio del Carretto serves as Admiral of the Order from 1509, probably occupying a mansion house on or near the site of the later Inn.

1513–1521, Grand Master & builder

Elected Grand Master in 1513, del Carretto modernises Rhodes's defences against heavy gunpowder artillery and, in 1519, builds or radically rebuilds this auberge; Vertot records that, with the Ottoman threat gathering after the fall of Belgrade in 1521, he “fortified and provisioned Rhodes regardless.” Del Carretto dies in office in 1521.

1521–1522, near-mutiny & preparation

Pope Adrian VI disposes of the Italian Tongue's European commanderies against the Order's claimed rights; a number of Italian knights leave Rhodes without leave for Candia before being received back “like a tender father” by Grand Master l'Isle-Adam. In the same tense interval, the knight Antonio Bosio recruits the military engineer Gabriele Tadino da Martinengo from Venetian service.

1522, the Bastion of Italy

In the siege, the wall's five bastions are each entrusted to a knight of a different Tongue; the bastion of Italy is held by Andelot Gentili against repeated assault, while Martinengo, blinded in one eye directing operations at the neighbouring bastion of Spain, has already raised the ramparts, built ravelins and cut countermines throughout the circuit.

1522–1912, Ottoman-period ownership

Following the Order's withdrawal, the coat of arms is removed by unknown hands sometime between 1862 and 1881; the ground floor is enlarged into a grocery and tobacco store, small wooden Turkish balconies and a covered roof terrace are added, and the interior is subdivided into five separate properties.

1912–1948, restoration & transfer

Italy occupies the Dodecanese from 1912; Amedeo Maiuri directs a restoration of the façade in 1915–16, removing the later plaster and Ottoman-period additions and recreating the coat of arms in white marble; a commemorative Latin inscription is added in 1931 under Grand Master Fra Ludovico Chigi; following the 1947 Treaty of Peace with Italy, the Dodecanese passes to Greek state jurisdiction in 1947/48.

The Vertot summary drawn on for this project gives the arrival of Guy de Blanchefort's death-bearing caravel as “13 December 1521”; read against del Carretto's own recorded mastership of 1513–1521, this appears to be a transcription slip for 1512 or 1513, since Blanchefort's brief mastership necessarily preceded del Carretto's election. This document reports the discrepancy rather than silently correcting it.

Testimony

Eye witness: two doubts and two answers

1912–2020 › a century of scholarly argument over one small façade

“Too small for the gatherings of the Italian knights”

Albert Gabriel's own verdict, doubting the building's identification as the communal Inn of the Tongue of Italy, and proposing instead that it was either del Carretto's purely private house or a structure shared between several Tongues.

Albert Gabriel, La cité de Rhodes: MCCCX–MDXXII, architecture civile et religieuse, 1923, cited via Foutakis 2020.

“Normal” that a Grand Master's own arms should appear

Answering Gerola directly, Amedeo Maiuri argued that the office of admiral was important enough to warrant its own separate residence distinct from the Tongue's communal Inn, so that a Grand Master's personal arms as former admiral, rather than the Tongue's own arms, were unremarkable on this particular building.

Amedeo Maiuri, “Il restauro dell'Albergo d'Italia,” Bolletino d'Arte, 1916.

“Are not well founded”

Patrice Foutakis's considered verdict, after assembling five independent eyewitness illustrations of the coat of arms spanning nearly a century together with archival and metrological evidence: the doubts raised by Gerola and Gabriel over the building's identity do not hold up.

Patrice Foutakis, “The Inn of the Tongue of Italy for the Hospitaller Knights in Rhodes,” Post-Medieval Archaeology, 2020.

“An authentic model... for the knights of Saint John”

Because, being a comparatively small building, it suffered fewer deformations and destructions than the street's larger auberges, the Inn of Italy preserves — in Foutakis's own words — a beautiful architectural unity that distinguishes it as an authentic model and an almost complete house from the beginning of the sixteenth century.

Patrice Foutakis, “The Inn of the Tongue of Italy for the Hospitaller Knights in Rhodes,” Post-Medieval Archaeology, 2020.

Story

Four scenes from a contested house

1519–1916 › a narrative reconstruction for visitors

A dramatised account, written for visitor interpretation and drawing on the building's own fabric and documented archival record (see History and Testimony, above). It is a narrative device, not a literal historical record.

The admiral builds, 1519

Fabrizio del Carretto, Grand Master now these six years, walks the short distance from the Palace to the plot he once held as admiral. The masons have finished the ogee frame above the new portal; within the week his own quartered arms — the Order's cross, his family's five cottises — will be set above it, with the year cut plainly beside them. He has fortified half the city already against the guns everyone now builds. This is a smaller kind of building, for a smaller kind of memory.

Dramatisation, after Patrice Foutakis's 2020 reconstruction of the building's 1519 date and del Carretto's biography.

Gerola's doubt, 1912

The Italian scholar stands before the shield, notebook in hand, and frowns. An eagle, quartered, crowned — but whose? Not the Tongue's own arms, as the neighbouring auberges properly show, but a Grand Master's personal device. He writes down his objection carefully: a communal Inn should bear a communal coat of arms. It will take Amedeo Maiuri, rebuilding this very façade three years later, to answer him — and more than a century after that, Patrice Foutakis, to settle the matter for good.

Dramatisation, after Giuseppe Gerola's 1912 survey, reported and addressed by Foutakis 2020.

The bastion holds, November 1522

At the platform named for his own Tongue, Andelot Gentili watches the Ottoman guns range in, as they have done at England's bastion and Spain's and Provence's these past weeks. Somewhere behind the lines, the engineer Martinengo who raised these very ramparts lies blinded in one eye, struck at the bastion next door; the Grand Master himself has taken over that post. Gentili's own wall holds a little longer. It will not be enough, in the end — but not for want of what this Tongue built, brick and gun-loop, in its last Rhodian year of peace.

Dramatisation, after the sources' account of the bastion of Italy in the siege of 1522 and Martinengo's wounding at the bastion of Spain.

Maiuri's marble, February 1916

The old plaster has been down a year now, and underneath it, exactly where Witdoeck drew it in 1826, is the scar where a coat of arms once was — and, cut carelessly through one corner of that same scar, a window some Ottoman-period tenant needed more than he needed history. No original shield can be found. Maiuri chooses the plainest of the five conflicting versions his sources give him: an uncrowned eagle, no flamboyant frame, no initials. “So that the restoration of this building,” he will write, “could come to an end as soon as possible.” The marble goes up white against the old grey stone. It is still there today.

Dramatisation, after Amedeo Maiuri's own 1916 account of the 1915–16 restoration, reported via Foutakis 2020.

Gallery

Photo gallery

Fifteen views › the Inn of Italy, its heraldry, its fabric, and its life today

Assessment

Significance criteria

Nine-criteria framework › International importance

Rarity

A securely dated (1519) small auberge surviving from the last decade of Hospitaller rule at Rhodes, and the only one of the Order's Rhodian Inns whose very identity has been the subject of sustained modern scholarly dispute and vindication — a historiographical rarity as much as an architectural one.

High

Representativeness

A compact, legible example of the Order's auberge type, made uniquely representative by its association with the office of admiral — held exclusively by the Italian Tongue — of the institutional link between a single national Tongue and one specific, continent-spanning military function of the Order as a whole.

High

Aesthetic value

Foutakis himself observes that the building “is not one of the most prestigious structures of the medieval town” and was “of not really great interest” to nineteenth-century photographers; its principal aesthetic interest lies in its ogee-arched portal and heraldic sculpture rather than in monumental scale or architectural ambition.

Medium / Moderate

Integrity

Nearly four centuries of Ottoman-period subdivision into five separate properties, the loss of the original coat of arms between 1862 and 1881, and the consequent full marble reconstruction of that coat of arms by Maiuri in 1915–16 mean that a meaningful part of what is now visible is early twentieth-century reconstruction rather than 1519 fabric, notwithstanding the lower frame's calcareous sandstone, which analysis suggests is original.

Medium

Historical value

Bound to an unusually rich sequence of institutional and military history: the Tongue of Italy's exclusive hold on the admiralty; Fabrizio del Carretto's combined career as admiral, fortification-builder and Grand Master; the recruitment of the engineer Martinengo on the eve of the 1522 siege; and the bastion of Italy's own place in that siege's final defence.

Very High

Symbolic, spiritual & social value

As the material record of the one Tongue among the Order's eight to hold the admiralty as a matter of settled privilege, and as a building whose very identity has become, through Gerola's and Gabriel's doubts and Maiuri's and Foutakis's rebuttals, a case study in how a community's heritage claims are tested and vindicated, the Inn of Italy carries social and symbolic weight beyond its modest physical scale.

High

Scientific value

Few monuments of the Street of the Knights have generated as methodologically rich a modern literature: five independent eyewitness illustrations spanning nearly a century (1826–1923), compared systematically for the first time by Foutakis (2020) against archival, archaeological and metrological evidence, constitute an exemplary case study in the authentication of contested heritage attributions.

Very High

Interpretive potential

The building offers strong interpretive potential both as a domestic Hospitaller interior — portal, courtyard, well, banqueting hall and kitchen — and, distinctively among the street's monuments, as a worked example of how heritage identification itself is established and contested.

High

Importance level

Resting on the Tongue of Italy's unique institutional hold on the Order's admiralty, the building's direct association with Fabrizio del Carretto's combined career as fortification-builder and Grand Master, its documented role in the final defence of Rhodes in 1522, and its own status as a well-documented modern case study in heritage authentication.

International

Statement of significance

“An authentic model... for the knights of Saint John of Jerusalem.” (Patrice Foutakis's own assessment of the Inn of Italy's preserved architectural unity, 2020.)

Italy held the admiralty, and the pairing reflects a genuine comparative advantage: Genoese, Venetian and southern Italian seafaring experience gave the Tongue's knights a command of naval affairs the Order could not easily have replicated elsewhere — a comparative advantage documented, well before Rhodes, in the Order's own twelfth- and thirteenth-century dependence on Genoese, Pisan and Venetian shipping and notarial record-keeping in the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem and Cyprus. The galley fleet the admiral commanded was the single capability on which Rhodes's security, its revenue from control of Aegean shipping, and its corsairing income against Muslim vessels all depended.

The Hospitaller Inn of Italy matters not chiefly for its scale — by common consent among the scholars who have studied it, one of the smallest and least architecturally prestigious auberges of the Street of the Knights — but for what it represents: the Tongue of Italy's unique institutional privilege, among the Order's eight national Tongues, of furnishing the admiral who commanded the Order's entire galley fleet, and the direct engagement of successive Italian Grand Masters in building and defending the Hospitaller state at its most critical hour. Giovanni Battista Orsini (1467–1476) and, above all, Fabrizio del Carretto (1509–1513 as admiral, 1513–1521 as Grand Master) exercised that governance at the summit of the Order's institutions, del Carretto engaging Italian Renaissance military engineers to rebuild Rhodes's fortifications against the newly developed heavy gunpowder artillery in the very years he also built this Inn, in 1519.

The building's significance is compounded by a genuinely modern dimension: its very identity as the Tongue of Italy's auberge was disputed in the early twentieth century by the archaeologists Giuseppe Gerola and Albert Gabriel, and defended by Amedeo Maiuri, who restored its façade in 1915–16. Patrice Foutakis's 2020 study, assembling five independent eyewitness illustrations of the coat of arms spanning nearly a century together with archival and metrological evidence, concludes that the doubts raised by Gerola and Gabriel “are not well founded” — a resolution this document reports, together with the debate itself, as part of the monument's own history.

Taken together, the Tongue of Italy's unique hold on the Order's admiralty, the direct personal contribution of Grand Masters Orsini and del Carretto and of the engineer Martinengo to the defence of Rhodes, the bastion of Italy's own place in the siege of 1522, and the building's status as a rare, well-documented case study in the authentication of contested heritage attributions together give the Inn of Italy significance of International importance, as one of the more historically and institutionally consequential — if physically modest — monuments of the UNESCO-inscribed Medieval City of Rhodes.

National

Hellenic Republic: ΥΑ 23084/737/25-8-1948 — ΦΕΚ 10/23-9-1948 (Ministerial Decision declaring the monuments of the Medieval Town of Rhodes, including the Street of the Knights and its Inns, protected under Greek Archaeological Law), subsequently confirmed under Law 3028/2002 on the Protection of Antiquities and Cultural Heritage in General.

UNESCO

World Heritage property: Medieval City of Rhodes (ref. 493), inscribed 1988, meeting criteria (ii), (iv) and (v). The Inn of Italy, together with the Street of the Knights and the wider circuit of the city walls, is a contributing component of the property.

References

Brodman, James W. “Rule and Identity: The Case of the Military Orders.” The Catholic Historical Review 87, no. 3 (July 2001): 383–400.
Bronstein, Judith. “The Hospitallers: From Land to Sea — An Examination of the Hospitallers’ Naval Activities in the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries.” The Medieval History Journal 22, no. 1 (2019): 53–91. Principal source for this document’s account of the Order’s pre-Rhodes maritime activity in the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem, Cilician Armenia and Cyprus, and its use of Genoese, Pisan and Venetian ports and trading privileges.
Brummett, Palmira. “The Overrated Adversary: Rhodes and Ottoman Naval Power.” The Historical Journal 36, no. 3 (September 1993): 517–541.
Foutakis, Patrice. “The Inn of the Tongue of Italy for the Hospitaller Knights in Rhodes.” Post-Medieval Archaeology 54, no. 1 (2020): 94–116. DOI: 10.1080/00794236.2020.1750152. Principal source for this document’s account of the building’s identification, architectural and archival history, coat of arms, and the 1915–16 and 1931 interventions; this document notes that Foutakis’s claim of nine successive Piossasco-family admirals (1417–1531) could not be independently verified beyond two named holders using the sources available to this project.
Gabriel, Albert. La cité de Rhodes: MCCCX–MDXXII, architecture civile et religieuse. Paris: de Boccard, 1923. Cited via Foutakis 2020 for the building’s architectural reconstruction and the doubts raised over its identification.
Gerola, Giuseppe. “I monumenti medioevali delle Tredici Sporadi.” In Annuario della Regia Scuola archeologica di Atene e delle missioni italiane in Oriente, vol. 1, 169–356. Bergamo: Istituto italiano d’arti grafiche, 1914. Cited via Foutakis 2020 for the doubts raised over the Inn of Italy’s identification.
Hellenic Government Gazette (ΦΕΚ). Ministerial Decision 23084/737 (25 August 1948), ΦΕΚ 10 (23 September 1948), protection of the monuments of the Medieval Town of Rhodes; Law 3028/2002 on the Protection of Antiquities and Cultural Heritage in General.
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Luttrell, Anthony. “Intrigue, Schism, and Violence among the Hospitallers of Rhodes: 1377–1384.” Speculum 41, no. 1 (January 1966): 30–48.
Luttrell, A. The Town of Rhodes: 1306–1356. Rhodes: Archaeological Receipts Fund, 2003.
Luttrell, Anthony. “Venice and the Knights Hospitallers of Rhodes in the Fourteenth Century.” Papers of the British School at Rome 26 (1958): 195–212.
Maiuri, Amedeo. “Il restauro dell’Albergo d’Italia.” Bolletino d’Arte 10 (1916): 129–43. Contemporary account of the 1915–16 restoration and rebuttal of Gerola’s doubts, cited via Foutakis 2020.
Miller, Timothy S. “The Knights of Saint John and the Hospitals of the Latin West.” Speculum 53, no. 4 (October 1978): 709–733.
Papathanasiou-Zuhrt, D. 2017, ‘The United States of Europe. Dress Rehearsal: Rhodes 1306-1522’, in EUROTHENTICA, Apple Books, Cupertino, ISBN 9788890859267.
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Papathanasiou-Zuhrt, D., Stavrinoudis, Th., Glyptou, K., and Skoultsos, S. “QR-Rhodes: From the Time Machine to the QR Code. Play Rooms for Non-Captive Audiences in the Age of Mobile Telephony. The Approach of the SEE TCP SAGITTARIUS 2011-2014.” Paper presented at the 5th International Scientific Conference “Tourism Trends and Advances in the 21st Century”, 30 May–2 June 2013.
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Phillips, Simon. “The Hospitallers’ Aegean Empire in the Late Fifteenth Century: The Contribution of Cyprus in the Struggle for Supremacy.” In The Struggle for Supremacy: The Mediterranean World in 1453 and Beyond, edited by George Cassar, Dane Munro, and Noel Buttigieg, 23–30. Valletta: Sacra Militia Foundation, 2019.
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REBOOT Statement of Significance: Admiralty of the Knights Hospitallers, Rhodes (2026) — cross-referenced for the Order’s admirals of the Italian Tongue, including the correction of an overclaim about nine successive Piossasco-family admirals.
REBOOT Statement of Significance: Castellania, Rhodes (2026) — cross-referenced for the 1449 investigation of Admiral Fantino Quirini.
REBOOT Statement of Significance: Fort St Nicholas, Rhodes (2026) — cross-referenced for the 1480 and 1522 sieges.
REBOOT Statement of Significance: House of Prince Cem, Rhodes (2026) — cross-referenced for the Order’s history at Rhodes and its Grand Masters.
REBOOT Statement of Significance: Porta Marina, Rhodes (2026) — cross-referenced for the 1480 siege and Pierre d’Aubusson.
REBOOT Statement of Significance: Street of the Knights, Rhodes (2026) — cross-referenced for the Order’s Langue and governance system generally.
Rottiers, Bernard Eugène Antoine. Description des monumens de Rhodes. Brussels: A. Colinez, 1830. Earliest published depiction of the building’s coat of arms (from Witdoeck’s 1826 lithograph), cited via Foutakis 2020.
Setton, Kenneth M. The Papacy and the Levant, 1204–1571, Vol. I: The Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1976. [The sole source consulted for this document cites this series as its “Fifteenth Century” volume; the volume title is reported here as supplied.]
Setton, Kenneth M. The Papacy and the Levant, 1204–1571, Vol. III: The Sixteenth Century to the Reign of Julius III. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1976.
Soldani, Maria Elisa, and Daniel Duran i Duelt. “Religion, Warfare and Business in Fifteenth-Century Rhodes.” In Religione e istituzioni religiose nell’economia europea, 1000–1800 / Religion and Religious Institutions in the European Economy, 1000–1800, edited by Francesco Ammannati, 257–270. Florence: Firenze University Press, 2012.
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Valkana, A. The Knights of Rhodes. Athens: M. Toubis, 2012.
Vertot, René Aubert, Abbé de. The History of the Knights Hospitallers of St. John of Jerusalem. 5 vols. Edinburgh: R. Fleming, 1757. Vol. III (Books VII–IX) — cross-referenced for the masterships of Giovanni Battista Orsini and Fabrizio del Carretto, the recruitment of Gabriele Martinengo, and the defence of the bastion of Italy in the siege of 1522.