The Military Harbour of the Knights (Mandraki)

Identity

The Harbour of the Galleys

The northern harbour of Rhodes town › a fortified base for the Order’s fleet, still a working harbour

Site name

The Military Harbour of the Knights (“Mandraki”); today Rhodes’ working small-craft and yacht harbour. The name derives from a word for “fold” or “pen.”

Location & setting

The small, northernmost of the three historic harbours of Rhodes town, between the great commercial harbour to the east and the west harbour; its innermost south-west corner is closed by the fortified height that also carries the Palace of the Grand Master. Coordinates 36°27′04″ N, 28°13′37″ E; 0 m at the basin and moles, rising to c. 23 m at the south-west height.

Type

A fortified war-galley harbour of the Knights Hospitaller — moles, windmills, towers, a free-standing fort and a chain-closure mechanism — adaptively reused as a public small-craft and yacht harbour since 1948. Unit of recording: open space.

Construction history

Ancient shipsheds and a Hellenistic mole fortification (after 305 BC); a 7th-century Byzantine fortress; Hospitaller building campaigns under Grand Masters de Villeneuve, de Gozon, de Naillac, de Lastic, de Milly, Zacosta (Fort of St Nicholas, completed 1467) and d’Aubusson (reconstruction after the 1476 flood and the 1480 siege); Tower of Naillac damaged 1856, demolished 1863.

Heritage designation

Component of the “Medieval City of Rhodes” UNESCO World Heritage property (ref. 493, inscribed 1988, criteria ii, iv, v); protected under Greek Archaeological Law 3028/2002, confirming Ministerial Decision 23084/737 of 1948.

Present use

Working small-craft and yacht harbour and public waterfront, open to the public since 1948; the Fort of St Nicholas is in periodic use as a lighthouse station, open to visitors.

Administration

Hellenic Republic, Ministry of Culture (the Fort of St Nicholas, Tower of Gallia, windmills and moles), through the Ephorate of Antiquities of the Dodecanese; Municipal Port Fund of Rhodes (harbour basin, moorings and quays).

Functions through time

Fortified war-galley harbour of the Knights Hospitaller, 1309–1522; Ottoman harbour and anchorage, 1522–1912; Italian administration of the Dodecanese, 1912–1947; public small-craft and yacht harbour, 1948 to the present. The harbour has been under Greek state jurisdiction since 1948.

Architecture

The Knights’ Naval Base

Moles, windmills, towers, a fort and a chain › a purpose-built medieval naval base, one tower of it lost

The harbour basin

A small, roughly rectangular basin enclosed on its east side by the Mole of the Mills, some 400 m long, and on its west and south sides by the town quays and the fortified height. It occupies the footprint of the ancient war harbour, and its defensive alignment has remained essentially unchanged from the 7th-century Byzantine fortress to the present day — some fourteen centuries of continuous harbour use and fortification.

The Mole of the Mills and its windmills

Three windmills survive of a longer historic row, sited on the sandy spit known as Panos Akra or Koumpournou and used from at least the early 15th century to grind grain for the city. Archaeological reconstruction identifies as many as six successive building phases along the mole: Hellenistic; Late Antique/Palaeochristian; Byzantine (with 13th-century windmills); a 14th-century mole under de Gozon; a 14th–15th-century mole under Naillac and Fluvian; and a mid-15th-century fort under de Lastic.

The Tower of Gallia

A cylindrical tower at the mole’s north tip, added by the knights of the Langue of France in the closing years of the 15th century together with a small outwork or “propugnaculum.” It survives substantially intact and is one of the most recognisable features of the Mandraki skyline.

The Fort of St Nicholas

A compact, free-standing stronghold at the mole’s northern tip, built by Grand Master Raymond Zacosta essentially from scratch, with the financial support of Duke Philip of Burgundy, and completed in 1467. It closed a harbour entrance previously defended only by a chain, and the international financing reflects the pan-European character of the Order’s fund-raising for its Rhodian defences.

The harbour-mouth chain and the 2006 bollard

An iron chain, documented in the Order’s records from 1454, 1462, 1475 and 1476, could be raised across the mouth to bar surprise attack by sea. In autumn 2006 excavation at the base of the Mole of the Mills uncovered its physical installation: a massive ancient marble column re-used as a bollard or anchor-post, standing on a marble-paved platform and still bearing abrasion marks from the chain itself.

The vanished Tower of Naillac

Built by Grand Master Philibert de Naillac (1396–1421) at the mole’s eastern tip, the great octagonal tower was the principal tower of the harbour defences: a square marble base with metal cramps, rising in three zones marked by stone string-courses to some 46 m, with an external staircase to its exposed upper level. Its closest parallels lie in the towers of the Provençal archbishops of Narbonne and in the tower of La Mota castle at Medina del Campo in Spain, pointing to direct Western European influence on Hospitaller military design. Nothing now stands at its site, near the modern lighthouse mole.

The south-west corner and the two churches

The innermost corner is closed by the same fortified height that anchors the Byzantine, Gavalas and Hospitaller history of the Palace of the Grand Master, documented separately in this series. The churches of St Nicholas and St Anthony, apparently built in the Byzantine period or the earliest years of Hospitaller rule, faced one another across the harbour mouth.

Materials and technique

The moles, towers and fort are built of coursed local stone, in places reusing large, intact ancient ashlar blocks stripped from earlier Hellenistic and Roman structures — a practice specifically attested in de Gozon’s 14th-century work on the mole. The lost Tower of Naillac combined a dressed marble base and metal cramps with coursed masonry above; the Fort of St Nicholas and the Tower of Gallia are of comparable coursed stone in the plain, functional idiom typical of Hospitaller military engineering on Rhodes.

One system, not separate monuments

The defences were conceived as an integrated system: the moles enclosed and sheltered the anchorage; the Tower of Naillac, the Tower of Gallia and the Fort of St Nicholas commanded the entrance with artillery and observation; and the chain physically closed it. It is a rare, well-documented example of a purpose-built medieval naval base combining harbour engineering, military architecture and industrial structures (the windmills) within one perimeter.

A heritage landscape in daily use

Since 1948 the quays have been lined with cafés and the basin filled with pleasure and excursion boats rather than war galleys. The windmills, the Tower of Gallia and the Fort of St Nicholas, framed against the walls of the Palace beyond, form one of the defining skylines of the town — a heritage landscape that remains in active daily use rather than musealised.

History

From Hellenistic Shipsheds to a Yacht Harbour

408 BC to today › Hellenistic, Byzantine, Hospitaller, Ottoman, Italian and Greek

From 408 BC: the war harbour and its shipsheds

The ancient military harbour occupied the same basin as today’s Mandraki. Along its south side developed the shipsheds of the Hellenistic metropolis, a strictly demarcated shipyard zone closed to ordinary citizens and set some 3.5 m below the town above it. On the east mole, which under the 408 BC foundation plan also formed the east side of the great commercial harbour, excavation has revealed a robust Hellenistic fortification of large square towers, some 100 m long, built after the 305 BC siege by Demetrios Poliorketes.

7th century: the Byzantine fortress

An early Byzantine fortress occupied the rocky height at the south-west corner — the same site later built up as the stronghold of the Gavalas family and, from the early 14th century, transformed into the Palace of the Grand Master. After the Byzantines recaptured Rhodes in 1250 from a brief Genoese seizure (1248–1250), captive labourers are recorded as having built mills on the east mole.

1306–1310: the Knights take Rhodes

The Hospitallers took possession of Rhodes between 1306 and 1310 and made Mandraki the base of the Order’s own war fleet. Hélion de Villeneuve (1319–1346) extended the walled town eastward to absorb unfortified neighbourhoods, setting the stage for a century-long programme of harbour fortification.

1346–1353: de Gozon’s mole

Dieudonné de Gozon built or completed the east mole of the great commercial harbour and, on present archaeological attribution, the east side of the Mole of the Mills toward the Akantia bay, reusing intact ancient stone blocks.

1396–1421: the Tower of Naillac

Philibert de Naillac built the great octagonal Tower of Naillac, “the Harbour Tower,” at the mole’s eastern tip, the dominant landmark of the medieval harbour. A 14th–15th-century mole phase is associated with Naillac and Antoine de Fluvian (1421–1437).

1437–1461: de Lastic and de Milly

Jean de Lastic organised a fort at the mole’s north end, with a semicircular outwork dated to around 1452; the Order’s chronicler Bosio credits him with fortifying the harbour “with towers and chains, for the safety of ships and sailors.” Jacques de Milly (1454–1461) continued the works.

1454–1475: a chain across the mouth

The Order’s archives mention a chain closing the harbour mouth in 1454, 1462 and 1475, when tree-trunks were used.

1461–1467: Zacosta’s Fort of St Nicholas

Raymond Zacosta built the free-standing Fort of St Nicholas at the mole’s tip, financed with the support of Duke Philip of Burgundy and completed in 1467, closing a harbour mouth previously protected only by a chain.

1476–1480: flood, chain and siege

A catastrophic flood in December 1476 badly damaged the main harbour wall. Grand Master Pierre d’Aubusson (1476–1503) ordered major reconstruction and, in 1476, “a chain of very good and thick iron” across the harbour mouth, replacing the earlier tree-trunk closure. After the great Ottoman siege of 1480 he again rebuilt the whole northern and harbour circuit, his shield prominently displayed on this front.

Late 15th century: the Tower of Gallia

In the closing years of the century the knights of the Langue of France added the cylindrical Tower of Gallia at the mole’s north tip.

1522–1912: the Ottoman harbour

After the Knights surrendered Rhodes to Suleiman the Magnificent in 1522 the harbour’s fortifications passed into Ottoman hands and continued in use, though without the intensive new building programme of the Hospitaller centuries.

1856–1863: earthquake, explosion, loss

The earthquake of 12 October 1856 and the gunpowder-magazine explosion of 6 November 1856 — the same catastrophe that devastated the Palace of the Grand Master and destroyed the Church of St John — seriously damaged the Tower of Naillac. Already structurally weakened, it was entirely demolished, or simply collapsed, and disappeared in 1863, described as “one of the most fascinating reference points” of the town. The Fort of St Nicholas, the Tower of Gallia and the windmills survived, with restoration.

1912–1947: Italian administration

Italy occupied the Dodecanese from 1912 and undertook restoration of the surviving harbour monuments as part of its wider programme for the Collachium and the medieval town.

1948 to today: a public harbour

Following the 1947 Treaty of Peace with Italy and the transfer of the Dodecanese to Greece, effective in 1948, Mandraki was opened as Rhodes’ small-craft and yacht harbour, a use it retains today within the UNESCO-inscribed Medieval City of Rhodes (1988).

2006: the chain-bollard excavated

Archaeologists uncovered the chain’s actual installation at the base of the Mole of the Mills — an ancient marble column re-used as a bollard on a marble-paved platform, still bearing abrasion marks from the chain.

Testimony

EYEWITNESS

Archives, travellers, a newspaper sketch and a spade › what each witness shows, reported as reported

The Order’s archives: a chain across the mouth

The Order’s own records mention the harbour chain in 1454, 1462 and 1475 (a chain of tree-trunks), and in 1476, when Grand Master d’Aubusson ordered “a chain of very good and thick iron” after the December flood. Bosio, the Order’s chronicler, credits de Lastic with fortifying the harbour “with towers and chains, for the safety of ships and sailors.” The chain’s existence rests on these documents.

As reported in the source Statement; the archival documents themselves, and Bosio (1692), were not independently consulted for this page.

The traveller’s fragments

Pieces of the medieval chain outlived the Order. The traveller Carlier recorded a piece lying on the site in 1579; the traveller Rottiers saw another fragment at the Great Hospital of the Knights in 1825, later transferred to Constantinople, where it is preserved today in the Istanbul Archaeological Museum.

Rottiers, Description des monuments de Rhodes, Brussels, 1828–1830 (listed in the references). Carlier’s 1579 record is reported in the source Statement without a bibliographic entry; neither was independently consulted for this page.

Rock, marble and abrasion marks: the 2006 excavation

Physical evidence confirms what the archives only describe. At the base of the Mole of the Mills, autumn 2006 excavation uncovered a massive ancient marble column re-used as a bollard, standing on a marble-paved platform and still scarred by the chain’s own abrasion marks — rare, tangible, in situ evidence for a mechanism otherwise known only from documents.

Reported in the source Statement; the excavation report itself was not independently consulted for this page.

A newspaper sketch of a tower falling

A different kind of eyewitness record survives for the Tower of Naillac: a sketch published in the Illustrated London News on 16 December 1856 depicted the tower’s partial collapse, shortly after the earthquake of 12 October and the gunpowder explosion of 6 November that year — the same catastrophe documented for the Palace of the Grand Master.

Illustrated London News, 16 December 1856, as cited in the source Statement; the sketch itself was not examined for this page.

The Colossus: a tradition, not a finding

Medieval tradition placed the Colossus of Rhodes, the bronze statue of Helios, at the harbour mouth, on the rocky base at the tip of the east mole — where the Fort of St Nicholas stands today. Several serious modern scholars incline to that identification. No archaeological evidence confirms it, and this page treats it as a long-standing, respected hypothesis rather than a fact.

Hoepfner, Der Koloss von Rhodos, 2003 (listed in the references); not independently consulted for this page.

Narrative

GALLEY SLAVE

Told by a chained rower › from the silver whistle to the lamp on the Tower of Naillac

The Silver Whistle

Every galley has its masters, and I have learned them as a fisherman learns the winds. The Galley Master stays aft, at the back of the ship, with the captain, from whom he receives his orders. There are also two under-officers, one amidships and one at the prow. Both are armed with whips, with which they flog the naked bodies of the slaves. I will not tell you what that feels like. I will only tell you that a man learns very fast to row. When the captain gives the order to row, the Galley Master gives the signal with a silver whistle that hangs on a cord round his neck. The under-officers repeat it, and very soon all fifty oars strike the water as one. It is a pretty sound, that whistle, thin and bright as a bird. In the whole world it is the sound I hate the most.

Told in the voice of a galley slave: supplied by the user for this document. The narrator is an invented device. Mandraki’s role as the Order’s war-galley harbour is documented (see Architecture and History); the shipboard detail in this block — the officers, the whips, the silver whistle, the fifty oars — is the narrator’s account, not drawn from the sources consulted for this page.

Chained to the Bench

We are six men chained to a bench, naked as we were born, one foot on the stretcher, the other lifted and placed against the bench in front of us. We support a vastly heavy oar with hands stretching our bodies backwards while our arms push the loom of the oar clear of the backs of those in front of us. The stretcher is the wooden brace where we push with our feet. The loom is the long inner part of the oar, the part that stays inside the ship. One oar, six men, and every one of us must move at exactly the same moment, or the oar will fight us. On my left sits one, on my right sits another one. We have no language in common except the rhythm. In, out. In, out. That is the only sentence we all speak.

Told in the voice of a galley slave: supplied by the user for this document. The rowing arrangement described here is the narrator’s account and is not itemised or sourced in this document’s references.

No Mercy

We are rowing ten, twelve, even twenty hours at a stretch, without rest. The officers go around and put pieces of bread soaked in wine into the mouths of the wretched rowers to prevent them from fainting. I take the bread. Pride is a luxury for men who can afford it. If one falls exhausted he is flogged until dead and then thrown overboard. Today, in the afternoon, it happens to a man on the bench ahead of us. I do not look. I have learned not to look. Nobody cries out, because we do not have breath. My bench neighbor leans toward me, as far as the chain allows. “Count,” he whispers. “Count. As long as you are counting, you are alive.” So I count. One. Two. Three. It is dark when the galley returns. The lamp at the top of the Tower of Naillac is lit, and I see it swinging above the water like a small, kind star. I hear the chain rattle up behind us, and I smell flour from the windmills, and I know that I have lived through one more day.

Told in the voice of a galley slave: supplied by the user for this document. The harbour setting is documented — the Tower of Naillac at the mole’s tip (Architecture, History), the windmills on the Mole of the Mills, and the chain drawn across the harbour mouth — but the lamp at the tower’s top and the events on the bench are the narrator’s imagery, not recorded in the sources consulted here.

Gallery

Photo Gallery

Nine views › the harbour mouth, its chain and columns, a manuscript and a galley; images supplied by the user

Assessment

Significance Criteria

Nine-criteria framework › International importance

Rarity

A purpose-built medieval naval base combining moles, a demountable chain-closure mechanism, artillery-equipped towers and a free-standing fort within a single defensive perimeter is a rare survival; the 2006 discovery of the chain’s actual anchor-bollard is itself a rare category of physical evidence, since comparable mechanisms elsewhere are usually known only from documents. The six-phase building sequence along the Mole of the Mills is also unusually legible for a single continuous structure.

High

Representativeness

Highly representative of the Order’s identity as a military-religious sea power: unlike the Palace of the Grand Master, which embodies its governmental authority, or the Great Hospital, which embodies its charitable vocation, the harbour embodies its naval and defensive function — the base from which its galleys operated and the perimeter that protected them.

Exceptional

Aesthetic value

The row of windmills, the Tower of Gallia and the Fort of St Nicholas, framed against the walls of the Palace beyond, form one of the most photographed views of Rhodes; the harbour’s continuing use as a working port gives this value a lived, everyday character.

High

Integrity

Assessed monument by monument. The Fort of St Nicholas, the Tower of Gallia and the surviving windmills retain a high degree of authentic Hospitaller-period fabric, and the 2006 excavation added rare in situ evidence; the Tower of Naillac is a total loss, demolished by 1863. The harbour’s defensive alignment is exceptionally continuous, unchanged in essence since the 7th century, so overall integrity is high for spatial and topographical continuity but irreversibly compromised for one of its most important individual structures.

High · Mixed

Historical value

Outstanding: the ancient shipsheds and a Hellenistic fortification built after the 305 BC siege; a persistent, if archaeologically unconfirmed, Colossus tradition; the naval base of the Order across two centuries of documented Grand Masters’ campaigns; and a richly documented sequence of events — the 1476 flood, the 1480 siege, the 1856 catastrophe and the tower’s 1863 loss — corroborated by archival, archaeological and travellers’ evidence.

Exceptional

Symbolic, spiritual & social value

An emblem of the Hospitallers’ identity as a seafaring military power, complementing the governmental symbolism of the Palace and the charitable symbolism of the Great Hospital. Socially it remains one of the most vital, continuously used public spaces in Rhodes town, its windmills and towers a shared point of civic identity.

High

Scientific value

The 2006 discovery of the chain-bollard demonstrated substantial, still only partially explored below-ground and underwater archaeological potential; the six-phase sequence along the mole gives independent research value for the history of harbour engineering, while the lost Tower of Naillac remains a subject for reconstruction from images, descriptions and comparanda such as La Mota in Spain.

High

Interpretive potential

Unusually rich and physically legible: a single harbour through which visitors can trace the ancient war-galley base and its shipsheds, the Colossus tradition, the Byzantine defensive nucleus shared with the Palace, two centuries of named Grand Masters’ campaigns, the 2006 chain-bollard, and the well-documented loss of the Tower of Naillac — all within a harbour in everyday public use rather than behind museum walls.

Exceptional

Importance level

International significance, as a rare, substantially complete purpose-built medieval naval base and an integral component, alongside the Palace of the Grand Master and the Great Hospital, of the Outstanding Universal Value of the UNESCO-inscribed Medieval City of Rhodes under criteria (ii), (iv) and (v). The mixed integrity noted above should be carried forward into any conservation or interpretive planning but does not diminish the overall level of significance.

International

Statement of significance

“a chain of very good and thick iron” (the Order’s Council, 1476, ordering the chain across the harbour mouth.)

The Military Harbour of the Knights (Mandraki) is the small, northern harbour of Rhodes town, and was, in antiquity and throughout the medieval period, the city’s enclosed military or ‘war-galley’ harbour. Its defensive alignment has remained essentially unchanged from the 7th-century early Byzantine fortress — which occupied the same south-west corner of the basin later built up as the Palace of the Grand Master — to the present day, making it one of the most continuously fortified maritime sites in the eastern Mediterranean.

Between the 14th and early 16th centuries, successive Grand Masters of the Knights Hospitaller — Hélion de Villeneuve, Dieudonné de Gozon, Philibert de Naillac, Jean de Lastic, Jacques de Milly, Raymond Zacosta and Pierre d’Aubusson — built and rebuilt the harbour’s moles, windmills, towers, a free-standing fort and a demountable iron chain across the harbour mouth, creating a purpose-built naval base for the Order’s fleet of galleys. The physical reality of that chain-closure system, previously known only from archival references, was confirmed by the 2006 discovery of its marble anchor-bollard, still scarred by the chain’s own abrasion marks, at the base of the Mole of the Mills.

The harbour’s later history includes both catastrophic loss and remarkable survival. The Tower of Naillac, once the dominant landmark of the medieval harbour, was seriously damaged by the earthquake of 12 October 1856 and the gunpowder explosion of 6 November 1856 — the same catastrophe that struck the Palace of the Grand Master — and was entirely demolished by 1863, a widely regretted loss. The Fort of St Nicholas, the Tower of Gallia and the surviving windmills, by contrast, endured into the modern era and, since Mandraki’s opening as Rhodes’ small-craft and yacht harbour following the 1948 transfer of the Dodecanese to Greece, remain among the most photographed and visited monuments in the Dodecanese.

This layered history gives Mandraki exceptional and unusually multi-dimensional significance: outstanding representativeness as the physical embodiment of the Hospitaller Order’s naval and defensive identity, complementing the governmental and charitable identities documented elsewhere in this series at the Palace of the Grand Master and the Great Hospital of the Knights; outstanding historical value spanning the ancient shipsheds, the long-debated Colossus tradition, and two centuries of named Grand Masters’ building campaigns; and exceptional interpretive potential as a harbour that remains in everyday public use rather than behind museum walls.

This significance must be assessed together with an honest, monument-by-monument acknowledgement of integrity: the Fort of St Nicholas, the Tower of Gallia and the windmills retain substantial authentic Hospitaller-period fabric, while the Tower of Naillac is a total, irrecoverable loss, known today only from images, descriptions and an archaeological footprint. Notwithstanding this qualification, the Military Harbour of the Knights remains a monument of International importance: an integral component, alongside the Palace of the Grand Master and the Great Hospital of the Knights, of the Outstanding Universal Value of the UNESCO-inscribed Medieval City of Rhodes under criteria (ii), (iv) and (v).

National

ΥΑ 23084/737/25-8-1948 — ΦΕΚ 10/23-9-1948 (Ministerial Decision declaring the monuments of the Medieval Town of Rhodes, including the Mandraki harbour fortifications — the Mole of the Mills, windmills, Tower of Gallia and Fort of St Nicholas — protected under Greek Archaeological Law; subsequently confirmed under Law 3028/2002 on the Protection of Antiquities and Cultural Heritage in General).

UNESCO

World Heritage property: Medieval City of Rhodes (ref. 493), inscribed 1988. Criteria: (ii) the fortifications of Rhodes, built by the Order of St John, exerted a wide influence in the eastern Mediterranean; (iv) the Order’s Rhodian towns form an outstanding architectural ensemble illustrating a significant historical period; (v) the town is an important example of a traditional human settlement shaped by successive cultural layers. The Mandraki harbour fortifications form part of the fortified circuit cited in the property’s Statement of Outstanding Universal Value, alongside the Palace of the Grand Master and the Great Hospital of the Knights.

References

Manousou-Ntella, K. “Μνημειακή τοπογραφία του βορείου άκρου της πόλης της Ρόδου” [“The Monumental Topography of the Northern Part of the Town of Rhodes”]. ΔΕΛΤΙΟΝ ΧΑΕ (ΔΧΑΕ) 33 (2012), 21–36.
Manousou-Ntella, K. “Οι θαλάσσιες οχυρώσεις και τα λιμάνια της πόλης της Ρόδου” [“The Coastal Fortifications and Harbours of Rhodes Town”]. ΔΧΑΕ 30 (2009), 67–80.
Gabriel, A. La cité de Rhodes: Architecture militaire, vol. I. Paris, 1923.
Bosio, J. Dell’istoria della sacra religione et illustrissima militia di San Giovanni Gerosolimitano. Rome, 1692.
Kollias, Elias. The Medieval Town of Rhodes and the Palace of the Grand Master. 2nd ed. Athens, 1994.
Hoepfner, W. Der Koloss von Rhodos. Berlin/Mainz, 2003.
Rottiers, B. E. A. Description des monuments de Rhodes. Brussels, 1828–1830.
Luttrell, A. “Earthquakes in the Dodecanese (1303–1513).” In Natural Disasters in the Ottoman Empire, 145–151. Rethymnon, 1997.
Vatin, N. “Les tremblements de terre à Rhodes en 1481 et leur historien, Guillaume Caoursin.” In Natural Disasters in the Ottoman Empire, 153–184. Rethymnon, 1997.
Tsiopanlis, Z. “Ο κατακλυσμός του 1476 στη Ρόδο” [“The Flood of 1476 in Rhodes”]. In Rodonia (Festschrift M. I. Manousakas), vol. 2, 551–559. Rethymnon, 1994.
Spiteri, S. C. Fortresses of the Knights. Malta, 2001.
Newton, C. T. Travels and Discoveries in the Levant. London, 1865.
Wikipedia. “Mandraki, Rhodes.” Accessed 2026. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandraki,_Rhodes.
UNESCO World Heritage Centre. “Medieval City of Rhodes.” World Heritage List, ref. 493. Inscribed 1988. https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/493.
ICOMOS. ICOMOS Charter for the Interpretation and Presentation of Cultural Heritage Sites. Paris: ICOMOS, 2008.
ICOMOS Australia. The Burra Charter: The Australia ICOMOS Charter for Places of Cultural Significance. Burwood: ICOMOS Australia, 2013.
Hellenic Government Gazette (ΦΕΚ). Ministerial Decision 23084/737 (25 August 1948), ΦΕΚ 10 (23 September 1948), protection of the monuments of the Medieval Town of Rhodes; Law 3028/2002 on the Protection of Antiquities and Cultural Heritage in General.